Representative Christopher H. Smith, Chair
Senator Jeff Merkley, Cochair
Recent Chinese Hukou Reforms
For decades, the Chinese hukou (residence permit) system has imposed significant limits on Chinese citizens seeking to move freely throughout the country in search of work. Numerous observers have identified it as one component of the increasingly large rural-urban divide in Chinese society. Since the late 1990s, Chinese authorities have deepened and expanded prior hukou (residence permit) reforms. Changes include: 1) national relaxation of limitations on migration to small towns and cities, 2) moves towards streamlining hukou registration in some provinces and large cities, and 3) numerous individual local reforms.
Many of the reforms purport to abolish hukou differences by eliminating certain hukou categories. They do not completely abolish the hukou system, however. Migrants must still meet locally-set criteria in order to transfer their hukou registration to a given urban area. Generally, these reforms require that rural migrants have 1) a “stable job or source of income” and 2) lived in a “stable place of residence” for over two years as conditions for obtaining local hukou in urban areas. Many of the reforms define these requirements in terms which exclude the vast majority of Chinese migrants, who often work as manual laborers and live in temporary accommodations.
As noted in the Freedom of Residence and Travel section of the Commission’s 2004 Annual Report, social services such as educational and health benefits frequently remain dependent on possession of a local, urban hukou. As a result, even under these reforms, poor rural migrants to urban areas who fail to meet the criteria defined above may be excluded from receiving the social services their neighbors enjoy. While reform of the hukou system is laudable, existing measures may be exacerbating social tensions and discrimination of poor migrants by established urban residents.
The following is a representative, non-comprehensive survey of Chinese hukou reforms enacted through the end of 2004.
National Reforms
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Date |
Sources |
Short Description |
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June 10, 1997 |
Initiates limited, experimental program to reform the hukou system in small cities and towns. Directs towns to grant local hukou to rural hukou holders with (1) a fixed place of residence for two years in the respective small town and (2) a stable source of income. |
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July 2000 |
Joint Communist Party Central Committee and State Council Notice |
Suggests that all small cities and towns should allow rural hukou holders with (1) a fixed place of residence in small cities and (2) a stable source of income to convert their hukous to local ones. |
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March 30, 2001 |
Extends the experimental 1997 project to all small cities and towns. Mandates that rural hukou holders with (1) a fixed place of residence in small cities and (2) a stable source of income may convert their hukous to local ones. |
Provincial Level Reforms
|
Province/City |
Date |
Sources |
Short Description |
|
Anhui |
July 13, 2001 |
Directs local governments to grant a local hukou to individuals with (1) a fixed place of residence and (2) a stable source of income. Eliminates agricultural and nonagricultural hukou distinctions. Creates exemptions for citizens who meet professional, administrative, education, or investment requirements. |
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Beijing |
April 14, 1995; June 4, 1997; March 29, 2002 (reportedly to be eliminated spring 2005) |
Directs county-level governments to grant permanent residence status to individuals with either (1) a fixed place of residence or (2) a stable source of income. Mandates that citizens who meet professional, education, or investment requirements may obtain local hukous. Requires all migrant workers to register with the Labor Bureau. Designates the temporary residence permit as the sole legal authorization for temporary workers in Beijing. Mandates that citizens who meet professional, education, or investment requirements may obtain temporary residence permits. Specifies new punitive measures for hiring or housing workers lacking a temporary residence permit. |
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Zhejiang |
March 29, 2002 |
Directs counties and small cities within Zhejiang to grant local hukous to individuals with (1) a fixed place of residence and (2) a stable source of income. Directs large and mid-sized cities to lower barriers to obtaining local hukous for individuals 1) able to purchase houses or 2) with advanced educational degrees. |
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Jiangsu |
March 28, 2003
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Directs county-level governments to grant permanent residence status to individuals with either (1) a fixed place of residence or (2) a stable source of income. Mandates that citizens who meet professional, education, or investment requirements may obtain local hukous. |
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Chongqing |
July 29, 2003 |
Directs towns and small cities in the greater Chongqing metropolitan area to allow rural hukou holders with (1) a fixed place of residence in small cities and (2) a stable source of income to convert their hukous to local ones. Sets restrictions on obtaining a local hukou via the purchase of commercial housing. |
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Gansu |
Sept 30, 2003 |
Directs local governments to grant local hukous to individuals with (1) a fixed place of residence and (2) a stable source of income. Provides special hukou exemptions for citizens who meet professional, education, or investment requirements. Eliminates agricultural and nonagricultural hukou distinctions. |
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Hunan |
Nov 9, 2003 |
Directs local governments to grant local hukous to individuals with (1) a fixed place of residence or (2) a stable source of income. Eliminates agricultural and nonagricultural hukou distinctions. ; |
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Hubei |
August 13, 2004 |
Eliminates agricultural and nonagricultural hukou distinctions. |
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Shanghai |
August 30, 2004 |
Requires temporary residence permits of anyone residing in Shanghai over 3 days. Requires applicants to present evidence of stable employment or educational qualifications to obtain a temporary resident permit. Entitles permit holders to 1) the ability to apply for education of one’s children, 2) the ability to receive social welfare, 3) the ability to be employed by a government agency. |
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Shandong |
Oct 11, 2004 |
Abolishes “migration control centers” independently established by local city governments to collect fees from migrants. Reaffirms authority of local Public Security Bureaus to handle hukou registration |
Large City Reforms
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Province/City |
Date |
Sources |
Short Description |
|
Chengdu |
Feb 12, 2004 |
Outlines the elimination of agricultural and nonagricultural hukou distinctions by 2007. |
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Nanjing |
June 19, 2004 |
Mandates that individuals with (1) a fixed place of residence in small cities and (2) a stable source of income may convert their hukous to local ones. Eliminates agricultural and nonagricultural hukou distinctions. |
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Shenyang |
July 7, 2004 |
Eliminates temporary residence permits and all associated fees. Replaces permit system with “automatic” registration system requiring migrants to register with local police by providing information on their place of residence and work. Guarantees rights against physical harassment. |
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Guangzhou |
Sept 21, 2004 |
Mandates that small cities and towns within the greater Guangzhou metropolitan area allow rural hukou holders with (1) a fixed place of residence in small cities and (2) a stable source of income to convert their hukous to local ones. Further mandates that rural residents who 1) possess a fixed place of residence within Guangzhou city proper for a minimum of five years, 2) have a stable source of income, and 3) have participated in the city’s social security program may obtain a hukou for Guangzhou city proper. Eliminates agricultural and nonagricultural hukou distinctions. |
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Wuhan |
Sept 2, 2004 |
Eliminates temporary residence permit system. Mandates the establishment of migrant management centers |
Small City/Town Reforms
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Province/City |
Date |
Sources |
Short Description |
|
Jinhua, Zhejiang |
August 16, 2001 |
Mandates that individuals, with the exception of rural laborers, with (1) two years of fixed residence in the greater Jinhua metropolitan area and (2) a stable source of income may convert their hukous to local, ones. Mandates longer periods of fixed residence for rural laborers before obtaining local hukous. Mandates that holders of a greater Jinhua metropolitan hukou with a legal permanent residence within the city proper may convert to a city proper hukou. Creates exemptions for citizens who meet professional, administrative, education, or investment requirements. |
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Hengshui, Hebei |
Oct 10, 2003 |
Mandates that individuals with (1) two years of fixed residence in the town and (2) a stable source of income may convert to a local hukou. Creates exemptions for citizens who meet professional or education requirements. Eliminates agricultural and nonagricultural hukou distinctions. |
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Tongzhou, Jiangsu |
July 22, 2004 |
Directs local governments to grant local hukou to individuals who possess (1) a purchased residence, (2) certain educational levels, or (3) capital funds for investment. Mandates that migrant laborers who (1) serve in a municipal public institution for five years, (2) pay social security taxes, and (3) own a legal residence may obtain a local hukou. |
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Jining, Shandong |
Oct 15, 2004 |
Mandates that individuals with (1) two years of fixed residence in the town and (2) a stable source of income may convert to a local hukou. Eliminates agricultural and nonagricultural hukou distinctions. |
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Ninghua, Fujian |
Undated, apparently current |
Mandates that individuals with (1) two years of fixed residence in the town and (2) a stable source of income may receive a local hukou. Creates exemptions for citizens who meet professional, administrative, education, or investment requirements. |